THE SEA KINGS OF ROME
                      CHAMPIONS OF THE NAUMACHIA

THE LIFE OF GLADIATORS

A Gladiator (derived from gladius, the 40-50 cm long blade the fighers used) was a professional fighter that would fight for the entertainment of the populus.  Gladiators were either forced into service because they were slaves or criminals, or they voluteered.  They fought everything from other gladiators and slaves to gigantic animals and wild beasts. 

The first gladiatorial combat took place in 264 BC and was staged by Decimus Junius Brutus in honor of his deceased father.  This tradition was taken from the Etruscans, who for several hundreds of years were the lascivious rulers of the Romans.  Soon there after, gladiator bouts rapidly became an essential feature of politics and social life in Rome.  The popularity of gladitorial melees led to ever more lavish and costly spectacles, always matched by voracious expectations of an enthusiastic public. Evidence for the types and class of gladiatorial games is sparse, but they certainly had a tremedous impact on Roman religion, social order, and entertainment.

Gladiatorial combat was seen as a sport—not a blood bath of irrational killing.  A fight between gladiators was arranged so that each would have an equal chance of victory.  If one side was had a higher chance of winning then the other, the crowd would vociferate until the sponsor rearranged the bout.

Romans saw gladiator bouts as a religious rite—a sacred act where the blood of the living fed the souls of dead.  This religious fight was called a Munus.  Only 1 in 10 gladiatorial fights ended up in death.  When a gladiator was injured, he would sue for mercy by lifting up one of his fingers to the sponsor—usually the pinky.  If the gladiator was killed, the sponsor would have to pay for the gladiator, and for this reason, the sponsor very rarely chose death.  The 'thumbs up' as a sign of 'let him live', as seen in so many movies and popular art is inaccurate.  Instead the sponsor would make a rising gesture with both hands; this makes sense since the losing gladiator would be on their knees.  
 
If, however, death was chosen, the sponsor would use his right hand and thumb to point at his left shoulder.  The losing gladiator would stay perfectly still and let their opponent stab down the meaty part of the shoulder—in the area of the neck—and into the heart, killing the defeated instantly.  The warriors that were chosen to die would simply let themselves be sacrificed through this ritualistic and symbolic method.  The less fear they showed in death—as they believed—the more they honored themselves and the Gods. 

The gladiators occupied a unique position in Roman society. Some were volunteers who risked their legal and social standing by appearing in the arena.  Gladiators stood apart from the social classes and even had a segregated burial ground.  Intially it was beliefed that this was a dishonor, but new evidence has found these burial sites on the path to prominant temples, which suggests that this seperation was to honor them.  Gladiators offered their spectators an example of Rome's power, and in fighting well, or dying well, they could inspire even the lowliest Roman. They were celebrated in high and low art, and were seen in both commonplace and valuable objects.

A gladiator typically fought 6 matches a year and served a 3 to 5 year contract, which meant that the average gladiator had an 18-30% chance of death.  This was a relatively low percentage of death, especially when compared to a Roman soldier, who had a 50% chance of death over a 20 year career.   After a gladiator's contract expired they would often become trainers for new gladiators or body guards.  Records indicate that some retired gladiators went on to become very prestigious body guards and high ranking Roman soldiers. 

Gladiatorial training was not as brutal and harsh as Hollywood likes to depict.  It was more akin to modern athletes training for a popular sporting event today.  Each gladiator represented a large investment by their owners; consequently, Gladiators had some of the best doctors, cleanest conditions, and most nutritious diets.   

The phrase 'we who are about to die salute you' is a common phrase that is seen in just about every gladiator film.  It is believed, however, that only sea fighters of the Naumachia took this oath—not fighters in the arena.  In fact there are only two accounts where this phrase appears in ancient writings—both times before an epic gladiatorial naval battle.   

Gladiatorial games reached their apex between the 100 BC and 200 AD.  The last great games of the Empire were around the year 100 AD—after the Decian empire was conquered; the subsequent gladiatoral bouts diminsed in specticle and acclaim as time progressed.  The games still persisted even after the official Roman religion became christianity in the 4^th century AD.  The last games were held around 500 AD.   

 

TYPES OF GLADIATORS

Andabatae is a gladiator that fought on horseback. They wore chainmail-like armor similar to a Cataphracti.  They also wore a visored helmet without eye holes.  In the arena, they charged at each other in a way similar to a medieval joust except they could not see their opponent because of the visored helmet.

Bestiarii, or beast fighters, were armed with either a spear or a knife.  Initially these fighters were crimanals that were sentenced to die, but later they became highly trained gladiators specializing in fighting various types of exotic imported beasts.  The fights were arranged so that there was only a small chance the animals would win.

Bustuarii fought in honor of a deceased person as part of the funeral rites.  This tradition was taken from the Etruscans and later surpassed by the Romans.  While the Etruscans only staged these fights for special occaions—like when a major political figure died—the Romans would later orchestrate epic battles for deceased leaders.

Catervarii are gladiators that fought in teams.  These were usually less experienced fighters who were trying to make a name for themselves.  Often times, they were used to reenact large and important battles in the arena.   

Dimachaeri comes from the Greek "διμάχαιρος" (bearing two knives) and is typically lightly armoured gladiator that weilds two-swords, one in each hand. 

Equites are were similar in class and status to knights in the midevil era.  In early depictions, these lightly-armed gladiators wore scale armour, a medium-sized round cavalry shield (parma equestris), and a brimmed helmet with two decorative feathers.  Later, these warriors used an arm-guard (manica) on their right arm and belted tunics, in contrast to other gladiators who usually were bare-chested.  The combatants would start on horseback and attempt to kill each other with a lance—either by throwing or ramming the lance through their opponents body.  Once the lances were discarded, thrown, or broken the combatants dismounted and continue the action on foot, using the traditional gladius as their weapons of choice.

Essedari or "war-chariot fighters" comes from the Latin word for a Celtic war-chariot, Esseda.  Since little is known about about these gladiators, no one is quite sure what equipment they used or their manner of fighting. 

Galli or Gauls were gladiators styled after the Gallic tribes in Europe.  They often used a lance, helmet and small Gallic shield; other times they used a traditional Gallic club, which was shaped like a bat and used to shatter the bones or the skull of their opponent.

Hoplomachus was a heavier type of gladiator.  They were named after the small round shield they carried, which was smaller version of the classic Greek shield.  These warriors were based off the Hoplites of Greece but they had a drastically different fighting style.  One of the unique strategies of the Hoplomachus was to use their heavy set shield as an offensive as well as defensive weapon.  This warrior was often pitted against the Murmillo (armed like a Roman soldier) as a re-enactment of Rome's wars in Greece and the Hellenistic East. Apart from their heavy but small shield, the Hoplomachus was armed with a lance or spear and a gladius. 

Laquearius (literally, "snarer") were Roman gladiators that fought with a noose (laqueus) or lasso in one hand and a spear or poniard in the other.  The laquearius appeared late in the history of the Roman games.  The Laquearius used similar tactics to the Retiarius.  The Laquearii fought by attempting to snare their adversaries with the lasso and then strike their opponent.  The armour was probably similar to that of the Retiarius, which consisted mainly of a galerus armguard worn over the left shoulder.

Murmillones wore helmets with fin crests that were modeled and named after mormylos or sea fish.   The armor of a Murmillo was loosely based on a Roman Legionaire, consisting of an arm guard (manica), a loincloth and belt, and thick wrappings covering one of their lead legs.  Murmillones, like most gladiators, carried a gladius and a tall, oblong shield in the legionary style. They were paired with Thraces and, occasionally, with the Hoplomachi.

Paegniarius fought with a whip, club, and a shield.  The shield was was fixed to the left arm with straps, which enabled them to use the whip and sword at the same time. 

Praegenarii were used as an opening act to get the crowd energized. They used a wooden sword (Rudis) and wore wrappings around the body. As they fought, they were accompanied by light-hearted music using cymbals, trumpets, and sometimes a hydraulis or water organ.

Provocatores mirrored standard issue legionary armament, which consisted of a breast plate, and helmet. In the later Imperial period, their armament ceased to reflect it's military origins and eventually the Provocatores merged into their own class of gladiators. They wore a loincloth, a belt, a long greave on the left leg, a manica on the lower right arm, and a visored helmet without brim or crest, but with a feather on each side. They were the only gladiators protected by a breastplate, or a cardiophylax, which was usually rectangular-- later it became crescent-shaped. Provocatores fought with a tall, rectangular shield—similar to a legionaire shield—and a gladius.  The Provocator was often trained to be the pursuer or ‘provoker’ of the combat.     

Quadrant is a gladiator that fought with a sword-like weapon that consisted of four metal tongs grouped in a square shape.  As the Roman Empire became financially weak, the price of gladiators become proportionally greater.  New weapons, such as the quadrant, were introduced because they looked intimidating but actually inflicted less damage then an ordinary sword.  Scholars had seen depictions of this weapon on ancient artifacts but it was believed that they were tools used in religious ceremonies—not weapons in the arena.  It was not until recently that several odd wounds were discovered in the bones of former gladiators that scholars began to see this tool as a weapon instead of a religious relic.  Because of its unique design and capabilities, some scholars asserted that this represents a completely different gladiator—not just a new weapons.  It is the author’s belief that this is a new fighter, one that fought and trained in a completely different style then their predecessors.      

Retiarius were considered one of the lowliest and most undeserving fighters.  Their name comes from the word retiarri and literally means ‘net-man’ or net-figher’.  They fought with a three point trident, or tridens or fuscina, a weighted net, or rete and a dagger.  They were lightly armored, wearing an arm guard and a unique shoulder guard, or galerus.  The shoulder guard allowed them to look at their opponent while protecting the vulnerable neck.  Below that, they would wear a loincloth (subligaculum) held in place by a balteus.  Because of their low rank as gladiators, they did not wear any head protection, which allowed the crowd to see the suffering faces of a losing Retiarius.  The rete, or net, is believed to be circular, with a wide mesh.  It was about 3 metres (9.5 ft) in diameter with lead weights along the edges.  A rope ran around the perimeter of the mesh, with the ends tied to the gladiator's wrist.

Sometimes a Retiarius fought against two Secutors at once.  The lightly armoured gladiator was placed on a raised platform and given an additional collection of stones to repel his pursuers.  The Secutores tried to scale the structure to overpower him. The platform (called a pons, "bridge") may have been constructed over water.  Such scenarios were one of the rare situations where gladiators were not paired one on one.  Retiarius combatants first appeared in the arena in the 1st century AD and become standard attractions quickly there after.

Rudiarius is a gladiator who won his freedom and received a wooden sword, or rudis, but then chose to remain a gladiator. Many did not fight in the arena but continued as trainers, referees, fighters etc. Rudiarius were very popular with the public as they were experienced and could be relied on to provide a good show.

Sagittarius were mounted bowman that were armed with a reflex bow.

A Samnite (Latin: Samins) was a gladiator named after the Samnium people, who were defeated in 312 BC.  Using the armor and fighting styles of conquered people was a great way for Rome to psychologically convince themselves—as well as others—of their superiority.  It not only demeaned the vanquished foe, it also allowed normal Roman citizens to witness the ‘conquering’ of the people.  A Samnite had a large curved but squared shield, or a Scutum, a helmet that was adorned in two large bird feathers, a gladius, and a greave, or ocrea. These warriors were some of the earliest gladiators in the Roman games. They appeared in Rome shortly after the defeat of Samnium and were incorporated in the victory celebrations.  They were quite popular until Samnium became and important ally of the Roman Empire around the time of the Emporer Augustus.

Scissores, or carvers, were very similar to heavily armored Secutors.  Little is known about this type of gladiator apart from the name and the weapon they used. They used a special short sword called a scissor, which was a sword with two blades that looked like a pair of open scissors without a hinge. It is speculated that they attempted to trap their opponent's weapon between the twin blades in order to disarm them. 

However, some historians differ in their opinion of what the scissors were.  Instead of being scissor like, they assert that the scissors were an arm guard that slipped over one arm and had a horizontal, half-moon shaped knife that came out on the end.  This half-moon blade was excellent for cutting through nets as well as human flesh. 

Secutores were the heavy set juggernauts of the arena.  These slow moving and well protected fighters were the very antithesis of Retiarius.  The Secutores wore a heavy 10 pound helmet that had small eyeholes that were designed to protect them from the trident of the Retiarius.  The helmet was also smooth and sleek , which prevented it from being caught up in an opponents net.  They hefted a large, rectangular shield that protected the gladiator from head to toe, an arm guard (manica), a loincloth and belt, and thick wrappings covering their lead leg.   

Tertiarius was also known as a Suppositicius, or a substitute.  Some games consisted of three men fighting each other.  The winner of first bout would face the third man—who was known as the Tertiarius. Tertiarii would also act as a replacement, or substitute, if a well-known Gladiator was unable to make a scheduled fight.

Thraces wore armour similar to a Hoplomachi with a broad-rimmed helmet that enclosed the entire head.  They usually were distinguished by a stylized griffin on the protome or front of the crest, which was a symbol of the avenging goddess Nemesis.  They also had a small round or square-shaped shield, or parmula, and two thigh-length greaves. The Thraces weapon was a curved Thracian sword called a sica, or falx, and was about 34 cm long.  This small but useful curved blade was used by the Thraces to stab around their opponent’s shield.  A favorite target for a Thraces’ blade was the back of the opponent.     

Velites were named for, and styled after, the early Republican army units.  They fought using a spear with an attached thong that assisted in throwing the weapon. 

Venatores specialized in wild animal hunts—as opposed to Bestiarii who fought wild beasts. As well as hunting animals, they performed tricks with them, such as putting their head in the open mouth of a crocadile, riding a camel while leading a lion on a leash, and making an elephant do tricks. Technically they were not gladiators but were still a part of the games.